英語論文文獻綜述(描述研究現(xiàn)狀).doc

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General descriptions of the relevant literature: A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies .... There is a large volume of published studies describing the role of .... The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with .... The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic. What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate how .... During the past 30 years much more information has become available on .... In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on .... A large and growing body of literature has investigated .... General reference to previous research/scholarly activity (usually more than one author) Many historianshave argued that.... (eg. Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994) Numerous studies have attempted to explain .... (for example, Smith , 1996; Kelly, 1998; Johnson, 2002) Recent evidencesuggeststhat .... (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001) Recently, in vitro studieshave shownthat T.thermophylus EFTu can .... (Patel et al., 1997; Jones et al., 1998). Surveys such as that conducted by Smith (1988)have shown that.... Several attemptshave been madeto .... (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001) Several studieshave revealedthat it is not just X that acts on ..... (Smith, 1996; Jones .... Several biographies of Harrishave been published. Smith presents an .... account, whilst Jones .... Several studies investigating Xhave been carried outon .... Data from several sourceshave identifiedthe increased morbidity and mortality associated with obesity Previous studieshave reported.... (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1992). Previous research findings into Xhave beeninconsistent and contradictory(Smith, 1996; Jones 1999, .... A number of studieshave foundthat .... (Smith , 2003; Jones, 2004). Twenty cohort study analyses have examined the relationship between .... At least 152 case-control studies worldwide have examined the relationship between..... Other studies have considered the relationship .... The relationship between X and Yhas been widely investigated(Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987, .... The causes of X have been widelyinvestigated(Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Smith, 1994). The geology of Xhas been addressedin several small-scale investigations and ..... Xshave been identified asmajor contributing factors for the decline of many species (1). Xhas also been shownto reverse the anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids in murine-induced arthritis (11). It has been suggestedthat levels of X are independent of the size of the Y (Smith et al., 1995) Ithasconclusively been shown thatX and Y increase Z (Smith et al., 1999; Jones, 2001 .... Ithas been demonstratedthat a high intake of X results in damage to .... (Smith, 1998; .... Reference to current state of knowledge A relationship exists between an individuals working memory and their ability to ...... (Jones et al.,1998). GM varieties of maize are able to cross-pollinate with non-GM varieties (Smith, 1998; Jones, 1999). There is an unambiguous relationship between spending on education and economic development (Rao, 1998). X is one of the most intense reactions following CHD (Lane, 2003). MIF has been found to oppose the anti-inflammatory actions of X on Y (Alourfi, 2004). Reference to single investigations in the past: researcher(s) as sentence subject Smith (1999) foundthatas levels of literacy and education of the population rise .... showedthat reducing X to 190oC decreased .... (see figure 2) . demonstratedthat when the maximum temperature is exceeded .... Jones et al. (2001) investigatedthe differential impact of formal and non-formal education on .... analysedthe data from 72 countries and concluded that .... reviewedthe literature from the period and found little evidence for this claim. interviewed250 undergraduate students using semi-structured questionnaires. studiedthe effects of Cytochrome P450 on unprotected nerve cells. performeda similar series of experiments in the 1960s to show that .... carried outa number of investigations into the .... conducteda series of trialsin whichhe mixed X with different quantities of .... measuredboth components of the .... labelledthese subsets as .... examinedthe flow of international students .... identifiedparents of disabled children as .... useda survey to assess the various.... Wang et al. (2004)have recently developeda methodology for the selective introduction of ...... Reference to single investigations or publications in the past: time frame prominent In 1975, Smith et al.publisheda paperin whichthey described .... In 1990 Patel et al.demonstratedthat replacement of H2O with heavy water led to .... Thirty years later, Smith (1974)reportedthree cases of Candida Albicans which .... In the 1950s Gunnar Myrdalpointed tosome of the ways in which …. (Myrdal, 1957) In 1981, Smith and co workersdemonstrated thatX induced in vitro resistance to .... In 1990, El-Guerrouj et al.reporteda new and convenient synthetic procedure to obtain .... In 1984 Jones et al.madeseveral amino acid esters of X and evaluated them as water-soluble pro-drugs. Reference to single publication: no time frame Smith has written the most complete synthesis to date of .... Reference to single investigations in the past: investigation prominent Preliminary work on Xwas undertakenby Abdul Karim (1992). The first systematic study of Xwas reportedby Patel et al. in 1986. The study of the structural behaviour of Xwas first carried outby Rao et al. (1986)..... Analysis of the genes involved in Xwas first carriedout by Smith et al (1983). A recent study by Smith and Jones (2001)involved.... A longtitudinal study of X by Smith (2002)reportsthat .... A small scale study by Smith (2002)reachesdifferent conclusions, finding no increase in .... Smiths cross-country analysis (2002)showedthat .... Smiths comparative study (2002)foundthat .... Detailed examination of X by Smith and Patel (1961)showedthat .... In another major study, Zhao (1974)foundthat just over half of the .... In a randomised controlled study of X, Smith (2004)reportedthat .... In a large longitudinal study, Boucahy et al. 2004)investigatedthe incidence of X in Y. Reference to single investigations in the past: research topic as subject Classical conditioningwas first demonstratedexperimentally by Pavlov (Smith, 2002). In his seminal study .... The electronic spectroscopy of Xwas first studiedby Smith and Douglas 1 in 1970 The acid-catalyzed condensation reaction between X and Ywas first reportedby Baeyer in 1872 Xformedthe central focus of a study by Smith (2002) in which the author found .... Xwas originally isolatedfrom Y in a soil sample from .... (Wang et al., 1952). The way in which the X gene is regulated was studied extensively by Ho and colleagues (Ho et al. 1995 and 1998). To determine the effects of X, Zhao et al (2005) compared .... Reference to what other writers do in their text (author as subject) Smith (2003)identifiespoor food, bad housing, inadequate hygiene and large families as the major causes of .... Rao (2003)liststhree reasons why the English language has become so dominant. These are: .... Smith (2003)tracesthe development of Japanese history and philosophy during the 19th century. Jones(2003)providesin-depth analysis of the work of Aristotle showing its relevance to contemporary times. Smith (2003)draws our attention todistinctive categories of motivational beliefs often observed in .... Smith (2003)definesevidence based medicine as the conscious, explicit and judicious use of ..... Rao (2003)highlightsthe need to break the link between economic growth and transport growth ..... Smith (2003)discussesthe challenges and strategies for facilitating and promoting .... Toh (2003)mentionsthe special situation of Singapore as an example of .... Smith (2003)questionswhether mainstream schools are the best environment for .... Smith (2003)considerswhether countries work well on cross-border issues such as .... Smith (2003)usesexamples of these various techniques as evidence that .... In her major study, In her seminal article, In her classic critique of ...., In her case study of ..., In her review of ...., In her analysis of ...., In her introduction to ...., Smith (2004) identifies five characteristics of ....... Some analysts (e.g. Carnoy, 2002) have attempted to draw fine distinctions between .... Other authors (see Harbison, 2003; Kaplan, 2004) question the usefulness of such an approach. Reference to other writers ideas (author as subject) According toSmith (2003), preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world. Smith (2003) points out argues maintains claims concludes suggests that preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world Smith (2003) argues for offers proposes suggests an explanatory theory for each type of irrational belief. This view is supported by Jones (2000) who writes .... Smith argues that her data support OBriens (1988) view that .... As Smith reminds us, .... Elsewhere, Smith has argued that .... Some ways of introducing quotations In the final part of the Theses, Marx writes: "Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways; the point ...." Sachs concludes: "The idea of development stands today like a ruin in the intellectual landscape…" (Sachs, 1992a: 156). As Smith argues: "In the past, the purpose of education was to ...." (Smith , 2000:150). As Carnoy (2004: 215) states: "there are many good reasons to be sceptical". Being Critical As an academic writer, you are expected to be critical of the sources that you use. This essentially means questioning what you read and not necessarily agreeing with it just because the information has been published. Being critical can also mean looking for reasons why we should not just accept something as being correct or true. This can require you to identify problems with a writers arguments or methods, or perhaps to refer to other peoples criticisms of these. Constructive criticism goes beyond this by suggesting ways in which a piece of research or writing could be improved. ...... being against is not enough. We also need to develop habits of constructive thinking. Edward de Bono Introducing questions, problems and limitations (theory) One question that needs to be asked, however, is whether ...... A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that ...... One of the limitations with this explanation is that it does not explain why... . One criticism of much of the literature on X is that ...... The key problem with this explanation is that ...... The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. However, there is an inconsistency with this argument. Smiths argument relies too heavily on qualitative analysis of ...... It seems that Jones understanding of the X framework is questionable. Smiths interpretation overlooks much of the historical research ...... One major criticism of Smiths work is that ..... Many writers have challenged Jones claim on the grounds that ....... Xs analysis does not take account of ..... nor does he examine ...... Introducing questions, problems and limitations (method/practice) Another problem with this approach is that it fails to take X into account. Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that ..... Difficulties arise, however, when an attempt is made to implement the policy. Nevertheless, the strategy has not escaped criticism from governments, agencies and academics. One major drawback of this approach is that ...... The main limitation of biosynthetic incorporation, however, is ...... However, this method of analysis has a number of limitations. However, approaches of this kind carry with them various well known limitations. All the studies reviewed so far, however, suffer from the fact that ....... However, there are limits to how far the idea of/concept of X can be taken. However, such explanations tend to overlook the fact that...... However, one of the problems with the instrument the researchers used to measure X was ...... However, all the previously mentioned methods suffer from some serious limitations weaknesses disadvantages drawbacks. Identifying a studys weakness (However,) the main weakness of the study is the failure to address how ....... the study fails to consider the differing categories of damage that ..... the research does not take into account pre-existing ...... such as ...... the author offers no explanation for the distinction between X and Y. Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between various different types of X. Jones fails to fully acknowledge the significance of ...... the paper would appear to be over ambitious in its claims. the author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y. what Smith fails to do is to draw a distinction between ...... another weakness is that we are given no explanantion of how ...... no attempt was made to quantify the association between X and Y. Offering constructive suggestions Smiths paper Her conclusions The study The findings would have been might have been more much more far more useful convincing interesting persuasive original if he/she had if the author had included ...... considered ...... adopted ...... used ...... A better study would examine a large, randomly selected sample of societies with ...... A much more systematic study would identify how X interacts with other variables that are believed to be linked to ...... Highlighting inadequacies of previous studies Most studies in the field of X have only focussed on ...... Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas. The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic. The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ...... Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they ..... However, few writers have been able to draw on any structured research into the opinions and attitudes of ...... The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y. The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. Researchers have not treated X in much detail. Previous studies of X have not dealt with ...... However, these studies used non-validated methods to measure ..... Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether ...... However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature …. Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which adequately covers ...... However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear if these differences still persist. Introducing other peoples criticisms However, Jones (2003) points out that ..... Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example, argues that ..... Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies. The X theory has been / vigorously / strongly challenged in recent years by a number of writers. Smiths analysis has been criticised by a number of writers. Jones (1993), for example, points out that …… Smiths meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism. The most important of these criticisms is that Smith failed to note that ...... Jones (2003) is probably the best known critic of the X theory. He argues that .…. The latter point has been devastatingly critiqued by Jones (2003). Critics have also argued that not only do social surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but the...... Critics question the ability of poststructuralist theory to provide ...... More recent arguments against X have been summarised by Smith and Jones (1982): Jones (2003) is critical of the conclusions that Smith draws from his findings.